In most database engines, that implement a journal. There is a distinction: The journal is strict for durability and recovery, and the data file(s) are used to actually store the data in order to operate. In our case, we'll assume a single journal and a single data file.

On every commit, we'll write to the journal file, as previously discussed, and we ensure that the data is safely on the disk. But what happens to writes on the data file?

Simple. Absolutely nothing.

Whenever we need to write to the data file, we make buffered writes into the data file, which goes into the big chain of buffers that merge/reorder and try to optimize our I/O. Which is great, because we don't really need to care about that. We can let the operating system handle all of that.

Up to a point, of course.

Every now and then, we'll issue an fsync on the data file, forcing the file system to actually flush all those buffered writes to disk. We can do this in an asynchronous manner and continue operations on the file. At the time that the fsync is done (which can be a lot of time, if we had a lot of writes and a busy server), we know what is the minimum amount of data that was already written to the data file and persisted on disk. Since we can match it up to the position of the data on the journal, we can safely say that the next time we recover, we can start reading the journal from that location.

If we had additional writes from later in the journal file that ended up physically in the data file, it doesn't matter, because they will be overwritten by the journal entries that we have.

Doing it this way allows us to generate large batches of I/O and, in most cases, allow the operating system the freedom to flush things from the buffers on its own timeline. We just make sure that this doesn't get into degenerate case (where we'll need to read tens of GB of journal files) by forcing this every now and then, so recovery is fast in nearly all cases.

All of this I/O tends to happen in async threads, and typical deployments will have separate volumes for logs and data files, so we can parallelize everything instead of competing with one another.

By the way, I'm running this series based on my own experience in building databases, and I'm trying to simplify it as much as it is possible to simplify such a complex topic. If you have specific questions/topics you'd like me to cover, I'll be happy to take them.